Use only the attached link to answer these questions. 1 page for each. Answer questions separately

•The three levels of racism can impact health via a number of manifestations. Choose one level of racism and explain how that form of racism may manifest itself to impact health negatively either directly or indirectly.

•Contextual influences (e.g., sociopolitical climate, enactment of discriminatory laws, neighborhood ethnic density, neighborhood social cohesion, work environment, etc.) can influence perceptions of discrimination. Please choose any contextual factor and describe how it may influence perceptions of discrimination among marginalized groups(could be a specific group or marginalized groups in general), and how it might buffer against or exacerbate the negative effects of discrimination on health.

Healthcare Disparities

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Healthcare Disparities

Question 1

Racial discrimination is a prominent social determinant of health and driver of racial healthcare inequalities. Among the three levels of racism, institutional level forms the basis for this discussion. Institutional racism involves differential opportunities or access to products and services among races due to policies, norms, practices, and structures developed. Colen et al. describe that high income or non-poor African Americans and Hispanics experience higher health disparity rates compared to non-poor whites or even the poor African Americans (Colen, 2018). This example explains institutional racism, whereby, as non-poor African Americans climb the social hierarchy and socio-economic ladder, they are more exposed to racial discrimination situations in all institutions. Increased exposure to racial discrimination among these non-poor African Americans is reflected in racial health gaps and disparities between non-poor Black and White communities, as explained by Colen et al (Colen, 2018).

Many people may assume that rising in the socio-economic status may improve their health. However, it is different, as the upward mobility among non-poor African Americans exposes them to intense and chronic institutional racism and discrimination, which is harmful to their health and wellbeing. Chronic discrimination, in this case, would include unfair treatment, limited access and opportunities in workplaces, schools, or neighborhoods, which results in a negative impact on their physical wellbeing. Indirectly, the discrimination non-poor African Americans and Hispanic groups are exposed to many results in increased stress, affect their emotional and psychological stability, which translates in poor health status and enhances health disparities. Colen et al. conclude that socio-economic factors, which bring about classism, are essential when understanding racial health disparities (Colen, 2018). However, they are insufficient as an intersection of other elements such as racism play a vital role, especially in institutional racism among non-poor minority groups and ethnicities.

Question 2

The sociopolitical climate of a country can profoundly influence discrimination among minority and marginalized groups. For instance, Heisler and Aasim authors in their article discuss the exacerbated discrimination cases and prejudice among Arabs Americans after September 11-terror attack (Heisler, 2010). This attack was an onset of a new wave of terrorism in the 21st century with al-Qaeda taking responsibility. Many Americans lost their lives, and many live with psychological trauma and distress. The fact that the perpetrators are of Islamic and Arabic descent results in increased discrimination of Arab Americans in the USA. Discrimination of this marginalized group is seen by governmental policies developed that target their civic and political rights. We have experienced many instances when Arab or Muslim activities have been raided or religious events highly monitored due to prejudices and stereotypes constructed that they are involved with terrorism. Immigration among Arab Americans has highly been curtailed and controlled due to biases that they are involved in disastrous and terror activities as well as been the cause of health problems among many Americans and victims of September 11th attack (Heisler, 2010).

The escalated discrimination among Arabs and Muslims in America has equally affected their health, due to increased psychological stress sourced from high exposure to all levels of racial discriminations and distrust in society. Political representation among Arab Americans has been limited, making their needs unmeet and unaddressed. These aspects have an adverse impact on their health and wellbeing. Discrimination and abuse they face instigate negative emotional status as well as increased psychological stress that translate in mental health disorders such as depression. In turn, escalated mental disorders make Arab Americans susceptible to biological diseases and harmful behavioral patterns that may invite physical distress and illnesses (Heisler, 2010).

References

Colen, C. G. (2018). Racial Disparities in Health among Nonpoor African Americans. Social Science Medicine, Vol 199, pp; 167-180.

Heisler, A. I. (2010). The Association of Perceived Abuse and Discrimination After September 11, 2001, With Psychological Distress, Level of Happiness, and Health Status Among Arab Americans. American Journal of Public Health, Vol 100(2), pp; 285-291.