Evaluation of the attractiveness of public space using social media data

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Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction

This chapter has presented a theoretical framework for the study, developed the topic, and placed the research focus into context through discussing and analyzing the existing body of literature and knowledge. This has provided everything that is known or has been discovered and the gaps that exist in the study. The chapter has been designed to review and address the literature that will help understand the attractiveness of open public spaces. The chapter includes the background of the problem, the conceptual framework, and the synthesis of the existing literature.

Background

According to Stanley et al., (2012), the public open space is vital in urban design and planning. Regarding physical significance, the public open space can increase the tendency of urban land use. In terms of social benefits, it’s perceived as a cultural space that reflects the community’s lifestyle and identities. Hadavi and Kaplan (2016) state that the current problem with public open spaces is that most urban developers are focusing on structuring public open spaces as an idealistic park, failing to understand the nature and position of the public space, and overlooking the need to understand the needs or requirements of individuals for their daily living. This has greatly affected the attractiveness of most public open spaces, thus resulting in deserted public open spaces which no one has used. Additionally, this leads to unpleasant conditions and problems such as security issues, high cost of maintenance, environmental deterioration, and health issues.

According to Beck (2009), the quality of life in a city is often linked to public spaces that play a significant role in providing relaxation and comfort and reducing mental fatigue and stress. Due to their role in improving environmental quality, livability, and sustainability, public open spaces have been essential in cities and towns in developing and developed nations (Koohsari et al., 2018). However, despite their importance, the condition or state of the public spaces in most cities has been far from desirable in terms of quality. There is a considerable variation in the provision of public spaces in terms of amenities, facilities, and quality. Although studies exist on evaluating successful public open spaces in developed nations and their qualities, there is a literature gap in understanding the attractiveness of public open spaces. Understanding the attractiveness of open public spaces is essential in ensuring proper management strategies for public spaces to boost their quality and attractiveness.

In the past, the study of open public spaces aimed at the spatial level, physical and visual accessibility, and enclosure in the site (Stanley et al., 2012). However, in recent years, most studies on open spaces have emphasized aesthetics, the proportion of the open spaces, and enclosure buildings. In the modern world, public open spaces have been built as tools to improve the quality of life in urban settings. However, the establishment of some modern cities has affected the usability and attractiveness of public open spaces. Nathiwutthikun, Peerapun, and Paksukcharern (2008) add that large construction projects and the growth of suburbs have reduced the chance for the public to interact in public open spaces.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework for this study is upon public open space attractiveness and the elements that influence the attractiveness of public open spaces. The conceptual framework will help identify what is known, the current knowledge gaps, and directions for further studies. Social-ecological models help in understanding the determinants of physical activity. The conceptual framework illustrates the needs, preferences, and demands that are empirically identifiable and central to properly appreciating attractive public open spaces. The conceptual framework can be utilized to ease the understanding of issues linked to the attractiveness of public open spaces. To establish a conceptual framework, the study will focus on inclusiveness, individual well-being, aesthetic appeal, space sustainability, and engagement.

Review of Literature

Defining Public Open Space

Public open spaces’ meanings are differentiated by features such as control, ownership, use, and access. Most consider public open space as an area not under the private sector and thus reachable by the public. Francis et al., (2012) describe public open space as a space owned by the government or the community and is used by the public. In public spaces, people meet others, interact and articulate public opinions. Pattacini (2021) states that public open spaces are recreational areas where individuals develop social connections. In such spaces, there is a lively gathering of individuals that occurs for various occasions and purposes. Pasaogullari and Doratli (2004) add that public open spaces like green spaces and parks are key built environments with features that encourage several physical activity behaviors.

The public open spaces are focused on designing the physical condition of towns and cities that contribute to the quality of life. The public open spaces, with their various economic, social, ecological, and structural functions, have contributed to the sustainable development of the urban area in the plan of improving cities. Montenegro, Beirão, and Duarte (2012) state that public open spaces are closely linked to green infrastructure in cities which play a significant role as an element of the city. Nared and Lamovšek (2015) have perceived the public open space as a place of public life, a place of society, a place for living and urbanity. Aelbrecht and Stevens (2019) also added that the public spaces are developed and maintained for the public to promote social cohesion. This definition shows that they are accessible to the public despite their income circumstances. These are areas where any member of the society can visit, meet, socialize, interact and discover common passion and affirm the collective and shared rights of the city (Aelbrecht and Stevens, 2019). There are different types of public spaces, which vary depending on the various uses and forms. Town squares, public parks, gardens, and waterfronts, among other spaces that are accessible and open to all regardless of ethnicity, age, gender, or socioeconomic level, have provided a meeting place and an opportunity for people to work together towards a mutual goal. They have been a strong tool for social inclusion. Ho, Lai and Wang (2021) also support that public open spaces are generally accessible and open to the public. Public open spaces have been outdoor areas that are open to freely selected and spontaneous activities, visual exploration, and movement. Public open spaces have enabled people to share their ideas, culture, and emotions representing society. Ho, Lai, and Wang (2021) add that they have encouraged gathering, social interaction, and common activities that develop a sense of community among individuals. Ahirrao and Khan (2021) note that the features of a good public open space include encouraging passive activities, connecting humans to nature, granting freedom for access, promoting recreational facilities and leisure, and offering stages of public art and performance. Generally, public open space can be perceived as a non-built space accessible to the community and the public and plays a great role in increasing the value of life in the city.

The urban planning of Public Open Spaces (POS)

Zhuang (2008) states that public spaces like plazas, sidewalks, and town squares are perceived as places that offer a common ground where a city’s public can meet, engage in various cultural performances, and exchange ideas. Public spaces are one of the major components of urban planning since they focus on the interaction between the city and people. Public open space urban planning emphasizes environmental, economic, and social dimensions to achieve sustainable and sophisticated development. The urban planning of public open space considers the factors of population, demographic structure, social needs, preferences, and space value. The shape and size of public open spaces play a major role in promoting various activities and users’ experiences.

Maruani and Amit-Cohen (2007) acknowledged three major POS planning models: the park system and the opportunistic and space standards model. The opportunistic acquisition model utilizes land acquired from leftover spaces, revitalization of recycling sites, and demolition from engineering and construction developments. The space standards model entails a quantitative match of the number and size of public open spaces to the area and population and aims at offering the least public open space (Maruani and Amit-Cohen, 2007). The park system model permits unremitting undertaking within the arrangement and supports the interconnection of gardens and parks.

Policies of Public Open Space in Hong Kong

The standards of POS in Hong Kong have made it mandatory to meet the passive and active recreational necessities of the residents either located within the domestic neighborhood or centrally situated to serve a broader area (Tang and Wong, 2008). In the urban regions comprising the New Towns and the Metro Area, the standard for the provision of open space is at least ha per 100,000 individuals. The active recreation areas include the pitches and game courts, while the passive recreation includes children’s playgrounds, sitting areas, and landscape planting areas. The locational guidelines state that the open space must be planned for land use (Ahirrao and Khan, 2021). It should be planned in the right location and not remain after provision for land uses. It should be functional, suitable, accessible, and usable and not an area that has been merely included to meet the standards required. While planning the open space location, the visibility and accessibility must be considered to facilitate wide usage as possible (Ahirrao and Khan, 2021). Safety is a major consideration in designing open spaces concerning facilities and location. The entrance of the open space should be well-identified. The playgrounds should be confined in a manner that parents can easily supervise. Integrated rather than segregated open spaces should be offered for adults, children and elderly people, and people with disabilities to facilitate a sense of community.

Hong Kong’s planning strategy for open spaces classifies them into three main types: District Open Space, Regional Open Space, and Local Open Space (Cheung and Tang, 2016). The regional open space is usually bigger and has more than five hectares. The regional open space must be situated at noticeable sites and close to main public transport centers (Lau, 2014). They are expected to attract both abroad and local visitors and serve as a green space in the urban areas. The regional open spaces offer a large selection of recreational activities provided to the visitors by taking advantage of the natural landscape, such as harbor views and waterfront (Government of Hong Kong, 2022). One of the largest regional open spaces is the Hong Kong Park in Central, which is among the busiest commercial areas in Hong Kong. There are also different sports centers and large greenhouses that have different plant exhibitions regularly. The district open spaces are considered a middle-sized non-statutory land use zone that is larger than a hectare (Lau, 2014). The district’s open spaces include active and passive facilities for leisure use. Most of the land in this space is used for passive recreation, while the rest is left for outdoor activities. The local open spaces are minor public open spaces mainly focused on passive amenities (Lau, 2014). These areas serve the community by offering sitting-out areas, children’s playgrounds, and resting areas. Most local open spaces are divided into a garden, sitting-out area, and playground.

The attractiveness of Public Open Space

Public open space has high image-ability when specific physical elements and their arrangements evoke feelings, capture attention and create lasting impressions to the public (Carmona, 2019). The attractiveness of public space is associated with the eyes, which includes pleasing attributes, aesthetic values, and quality. Mensah, Andres, Perera, and Roji (2016) stated that attractive public open spaces are clear in produce a feeling of well-being and comfort to the public. Cohen et al., (2007) realized that the amount of physical activity amenities is certainly linked to the physical performance in the park. Urban developers and scholars have focused on several elements to evaluate the attractiveness of public open spaces. Common elements include inclusiveness, sociability, meaningful activities, comfort, safety, and access and linkage.

Sociability

Stanley et al., (2012) state that public open spaces were used for basic survival, entertainment, and communication in the past. They were also used to complete several religious, political, commercial, and social purposes. Public open spaces have been places where people meet and watch daily life. A good public open space should create a place for discussion and engagement for spontaneous and planned experiences for learning different beliefs and attitudes (Andersson, 2021). Public open spaces have offered different possibilities for social interaction where people experience creative disorder and diversity that enhance personal development. Meaningful public spaces have been able to facilitate, maintain and encourage social life since they are essential to the home, work, and private spaces to fulfill the needs for communication, connection, relaxation, and play. Carmona (2019) states that nowadays, urban designers and planners consider human aspects of public space more than before. The physical quality of public spaces has been the first factor in ensuring that the spaces offer sociability due to the gathering of people. Carmona (2019) adds that sociability has been an essential aspect of public space through creating significant opportunities for social engagement. People feel a solid bond between the space and their society when they engage with each other. Sociability in public open spaces is based on a personal need to have a sense of social interaction and to belong, which can happen through a public open space that provides physiological comfort, a sense of possession, and a calm region.

Inclusiveness

The public open space is an area of engagement. It’s a space for shared interests and communal voice and where conflicts and variances of different groups roll out. The number of activities within public space and the users involved may determine its inclusiveness. Inclusiveness includes being ambiguous and flexible to accommodate the ever change behaviors and activities of the users (Mehta, 2014). People invent new activities within public spaces and change behaviors to suit their needs. Although public open space cannot support all behaviors and activities in a real sense, it should be designed so that the space is accessible to varying groups and individuals. Mehta (2014) supports that an inclusive public open space is considered a public space for all. This suggests that everyone should feel included and welcomed and not discriminated by their sexuality, age, gender, or cultural or ethnic background. Ideally, public open spaces are a significant part of the urban built environment and public life. It’s often perceived as a public asset offering various opportunities and benefits (UN Habitatt, 2015). These include space for social engagement, better mental and physical health outcomes, fostering a sense of belonging, and boosting community resiliency. Therefore, it’s important to ensure that the public space is inclusive and open for all to ensure equitable access to free valuable resources offered by public spaces. Social inclusivity should be a top priority, such as representative and equitable participation in public space (Mehta, 2014). Public spaces need to be fully accessible both socially and physically while being inclusive to all. This means the right to feel welcome and safe, having a sense of belonging and full participation.

Meaningful Activities

The meaningfulness of a place is an intricate phenomenon impacted by both collective and individual activities and the narrative of a place that helps construct a place’s distinctiveness. Public open space becomes important when it’s useful and supports undertakings that are culturally and symbolically expressive to groups and persons (Dea and Kusuma, 2021). The usefulness of public open space is the capability to fulfill basic needs. Usefulness entails the land-use diversity and criteria of space design, making it useful to the people. Meaningful activities can satisfy individual needs. Ujang (2017) states that to satisfy the day-to-day needs, the public open space encourages repeated visits and high use frequency, which translates into creating a sense of place attachment and familiarity with the environment.

Comfort and image

Chen, Liu, Xie, and Marušić (2016) state that people are influenced by the human desire to visit public open spaces that provide them with psychological and physical comfort. Comfort refers to the condition where the public open space promotes psychological and physical well-being and satisfies human needs through the provision of facilities, physical conditions, and aesthetic features (Karsono, Indira, and Deni, 2016). For instance, a visible and well-defined entrance offers comfort to the users and allows them to access the public open space. A single-level wide walkway within the POS facilitates usability and offers physical comfort to the users. Comfort and image in public open spaces depend on several factors, such as familiarity with the setting, perceived level of safety, physical conditions, weather, and convenience (Paul and Nagendra, 2017). Although humans are recognized to function in stimulating environmental settings, fulfilling basic functional needs, including safety from natural elements, environmental comfort, and providing shelter, goes beyond achieving high order requirements such as esteem, belonging, aesthetic and rational needs. Comfort and image are also affected by environmental factors such as shade, wind, temperature, and sunlight that affect human behavior in public open spaces (Cilliers et al., 2015). For instance, sunlight is a major attraction in public open spaces. Microclimatic circumstances may largely be a factor of man-made settings influencing the natural climate to become necessary for supporting activities within public open spaces such as parks. Additionally, besides offering protection from harsh weather conditions such as wind, rain, and sun, offering physiologically suitable settings in public open spaces is necessary for supporting behavior patterns (Zhang and Zhou, 2018). One of the limitations in the attractiveness of public open spaces is that most of these spaces lack all the physical attributes and features that can lead to comfort and a better image of the public open space.

Chen et al., (2016) state that public open spaces are pleasurable when they have a greater level of sensory complexity and spatial value and are thus imageable. The quality of the physical object plays a major role in evoking a strong image for the visitors. For instance, high imageability offers comfort and pleasure, which create a strong impression and positive attributes for the public open space. For psychological comfort, the availability of vistas and focal points creates a visually pleasing and appealing view for users (Mehta, 2014). These elements greatly create a positive and perceivable image of the public open space among the users. Additionally, other sensory experiences influence the attractiveness of public open spaces, such as sounds, sights, touches, colors, smell, textures, and patterns (Degen and Rose, 2012). Previous studies have indicated that the public wishes for open spaces with a high level of culturally acceptable sensory stimuli, spatial quality, pleasurable space, and sensory complexity, which influence the desirability of public open spaces.

Access and Linkage

Koohsari et al., (2015) state that a public open space is a space within the city that is accessible to all individuals and accommodates different activities. Public open space should be accessible and open to all in terms of availability of transport links, convenient position, clear entrance, high visibility, and barrier-free access, ensuring that the public can access and enjoy the public open space. Access is important in public open spaces since it allows users to connect with the public space (Tian, Jim, and Liu, 2017). Therefore, an attractive public open space is visible and easy to get around and has a high turnover in the parking and convenient public transit. Access and linkage in public open spaces promote engagement, facilitating social dimension and user-centric parameters (Salih and Ismail, 2017). When public open space can accommodate the activities concerning the user’s needs, users can effectively engage with the space.

Summary

For optimal planning of POS, it’s vital to evaluate the factors that impact the attractiveness of the public open space and understand the driving factors of the visits. The attractiveness of public open space is linked to inclusiveness, sociability, meaningful activities, comfort, safety, access, and linkage. Therefore, when evaluating the attractiveness of public open spaces, it’s important to consider these elements. Previous studies have increasingly supported the need to evaluate these elements to improve the attractiveness of the public open space. The next chapter focused on the methodology used to evaluate the attractiveness of public open spaces within Hong Kong through social media data.